twilighterheart
31-07-2010, 06:04 AM
The Birth Moment of Modern Times
Muhammad XII confronts Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
January 2, 1492
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada.jpg/800px-La_rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada.jpg
What came before:
Roman Industry
Roman Empire - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Roman metallurgy
The invention and widespread application of hydraulic mining, namely hushing and ground-sluicing, aided by the ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale, allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[72]
The annual total iron output is estimated at 82,500 t,[73] assuming a productive capacity of ca. 1.5 kg per capita.[74] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[75] and lead at 80,000 t,[76] both production levels not to be paralled until the Industrial Revolution;[77] Spain alone had a 40% share in world lead production.[78] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached an amount of 200 t per annum.[79] At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[80] Any one of the Imperium's most important mining provinces produced as much silver as the contemporary Han empire as a whole, and more gold by an entire order of magnitude.[81]
The high amount of metal coinage in circulation meant that more coined money was available for trading or saving in the economy (monetization).[82]
[edit] Currency
Main articles: Roman currency and Roman Imperial currency
A Roman aureus struck under Augustus, c. AD 13–14; the reverse shows Tiberius riding on a quadriga, celebrating the fifteenth renewal of his tribunal power.
The imperial government was, as all governments, interested in the issue and control of the currency in circulation. To mint coins was a political act: the image of the ruling emperor appeared on most issues, and coins were a means of showing his image throughout the empire. Also featured were predecessors, empresses, other family members, and heirs apparent. By issuing coins with the image of an heir his legitimacy and future succession was proclaimed and reinforced. Political messages and imperial propaganda such as proclamations of victory and acknowledgements of loyalty also appeared in certain issues.
Legally only the emperor and the Senate had the authority to mint coins inside the empire.[83] However the authority of the Senate was mainly in name only. In general, the imperial government issued gold and silver coins while the Senate issued bronze coins marked by the legend "SC", short for Senatus Consulto "by decree of the Senate". However, bronze coinage could be struck without this legend. Some Greek cities were allowed to mint[84] bronze and certain silver coins, which today are known as Greek Imperials (also Roman Colonials or Roman Provincials). The imperial mints were under the control of a chief financial minister, and the provincial mints were under the control of the imperial provincial procurators. The Senatorial mints were governed by officials of the Senatorial treasury.
The Final Act:
http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/muhlberger/orb/milex.htm
It is difficult to reach a conclusive verdict on why the western Roman empire fell. As these arguments show, it was a long and complex process, made more difficult to understand by the patchy nature of our evidence. If there was a simple answer, the Romans would surely have found it. Whatever the reasons, throughout the fifth century, when emperors could find money and assemble troops, the Roman army was a powerful and effective force. The institution itself was not at fault, but the support it received from its commanders-in-chief, the Emperors, was often lacking. If there was a single reason for the collapse of the western Empire, it was poor leadership, not military failure.
Muhammad XII confronts Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
January 2, 1492
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/La_rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada.jpg/800px-La_rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada.jpg
What came before:
Roman Industry
Roman Empire - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Roman metallurgy
The invention and widespread application of hydraulic mining, namely hushing and ground-sluicing, aided by the ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale, allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.[72]
The annual total iron output is estimated at 82,500 t,[73] assuming a productive capacity of ca. 1.5 kg per capita.[74] Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,[75] and lead at 80,000 t,[76] both production levels not to be paralled until the Industrial Revolution;[77] Spain alone had a 40% share in world lead production.[78] The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached an amount of 200 t per annum.[79] At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.[80] Any one of the Imperium's most important mining provinces produced as much silver as the contemporary Han empire as a whole, and more gold by an entire order of magnitude.[81]
The high amount of metal coinage in circulation meant that more coined money was available for trading or saving in the economy (monetization).[82]
[edit] Currency
Main articles: Roman currency and Roman Imperial currency
A Roman aureus struck under Augustus, c. AD 13–14; the reverse shows Tiberius riding on a quadriga, celebrating the fifteenth renewal of his tribunal power.
The imperial government was, as all governments, interested in the issue and control of the currency in circulation. To mint coins was a political act: the image of the ruling emperor appeared on most issues, and coins were a means of showing his image throughout the empire. Also featured were predecessors, empresses, other family members, and heirs apparent. By issuing coins with the image of an heir his legitimacy and future succession was proclaimed and reinforced. Political messages and imperial propaganda such as proclamations of victory and acknowledgements of loyalty also appeared in certain issues.
Legally only the emperor and the Senate had the authority to mint coins inside the empire.[83] However the authority of the Senate was mainly in name only. In general, the imperial government issued gold and silver coins while the Senate issued bronze coins marked by the legend "SC", short for Senatus Consulto "by decree of the Senate". However, bronze coinage could be struck without this legend. Some Greek cities were allowed to mint[84] bronze and certain silver coins, which today are known as Greek Imperials (also Roman Colonials or Roman Provincials). The imperial mints were under the control of a chief financial minister, and the provincial mints were under the control of the imperial provincial procurators. The Senatorial mints were governed by officials of the Senatorial treasury.
The Final Act:
http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/muhlberger/orb/milex.htm
It is difficult to reach a conclusive verdict on why the western Roman empire fell. As these arguments show, it was a long and complex process, made more difficult to understand by the patchy nature of our evidence. If there was a simple answer, the Romans would surely have found it. Whatever the reasons, throughout the fifth century, when emperors could find money and assemble troops, the Roman army was a powerful and effective force. The institution itself was not at fault, but the support it received from its commanders-in-chief, the Emperors, was often lacking. If there was a single reason for the collapse of the western Empire, it was poor leadership, not military failure.