kasalt
26-09-2007, 11:56 AM
These are very good articles in which the concepts of karma and yoga are briefly explained. I saved these articles years ago as a text file. The URL from which I obtained them is now a dead link, and I have been unable to find them anywhere else on the net. No one was credited with authorship for these articles.
Karma: The universal law of action and reaction
Cause and effect form the basic duality within this material world. Whatever happens has a cause and will cause other effects, both directly and indirectly. Chance doesn't exist. Everything is part of a higher cause-effect structure. Cause and effect refer to the principle of action and reaction. According to the Vedic teachings, this principle applies both on physical and nonphysical levels. The equation "Action = reaction" is the basis of Newtonian physics, which restricts this formula to mechanical processes. While Newton denied any possibility of cause-effect without a physical connection, modern quantum physics indicates the universal aspects of the cause-effect principle. Pioneers like David Bohm went so far as to propose the existence of a universal quantum potential field that coordinates a hierarchy of explicit orders and thus allows synchronization of non-local physical events. These are only abstract ideas, but they show that a closer examination of the complex system of actions and reactions, both on atomic and cosmic levels, will lead us to the conclusion that mere mechanic causality cannot explain everything. This is especially true regarding phenomena like consciousness, life, individuality, and destiny.
The Vedic version is that there is no such thing as chance. Everything happens by the arrangement of higher authorities, also known as "providence." Whatever happens has a cause and a higher purpose. However, the propounders of the materialistic world view strictly deny this. They say that cause and effect is valid within the entire universe, but only on the physical level. Life and consciousness, they say, are the products of atomic combinations under the strict laws of physics (based on causality). But they exclude life and consciousness from causality, saying that they were produced by chance and work by chance. This argument is inconsistent, one-sided, and biased. Still, it can't be denied that the Vedic idea that nothing happens by chance is difficult for Westerners to accept. If chance doesn't exist, do we mean to say that rapes, murders, car accidents, and concentration camps happen due to predestination, that they had to happen because the causes were set for this effect?
The Vedic view of karma can shed much light on these questions. Karma refutes both the materialistic and fatalistic world view. Karma extends cause and effect from the physical level to the nonphysical levels of consciousness and destiny. There are many misconceptions about karma. Some Christian critics argue that karma corresponds to the principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," which is set up by men and denied by God. Propounders of liberalism say that all human beings have free will, that everybody has to decide for himself what is right or wrong, and that there are no absolute standards such as those suggested by karma. These misconceptions arise from misunderstanding. Let us examine what karma means.
Karma is the Sanskrit word for "action." Since the Sanskrit language is multifaceted, karma means much more than this simple translation. Derived from the root kri "to do, to plan, to execute," karma further means "that which is caused and causing," which suggests that no action is independent. Each action or event is part of a big network of causes and becomes a cause for future reactions or events. This network of karma (action) is coordinated according to the "law of karma" -- the law of action and reaction. Most misunderstandings are due to the confusion of karma and predestination. Karma is not predestination! The Vedic understanding of karma includes both predestination and free will. The wrong interpretation of karma can lead to amazing extremes. If you think karma is just predestination, then whatever comes can't be changed and whatever happens was sanctioned by karma. This would allow you to think, "I can exploit others for my purpose, kill them in camps, or enslave them. If I can do it, this means it was their karma, and I am not guilty, because if it wasn't their karma, I couldn't do it. But because I can, I am allowed to do it." There are many beings on Earth and beyond who think like that -- more than most humans imagine. There are two big mistakes in this logic. First, free will exists, and second, karma is not the supreme law in this creation. Sometimes philosophers consider free will to be the ultimate controlling factor of our destiny, but although this proposition is attractive, it is wrong. The Supreme Lord, Krishna, also has His plan for the creation and sometimes causes gross annihilation of the living beings who have become too sinful and disturbing for the Earth to bear.
To understand the implications of karma, we have to understand the sublime synthesis of predestination and free will. Both aspects exist simultaneously. To conceive of this inconceivable reality, we have to consider both sides of the law of karma: the point of view of action, and the point of view of reaction. Considering the point of view of reaction, we have to accept that whatever has happened to us was predestined, and it was sanctioned by the universal authority (God, or Vishnu, who as Supersoul is present both within the universe and within the heart of each living entity as the omnipresent witness and the universal memory). Whether we accept this point of view or not, the fact that something happened cannot be changed. We may call it chance or bad or good luck, but then we avoid the lesson that we should learn. To learn the lesson is important because each situation forces us to react.
This leads to the second aspect of karma, the point of view of action. Although the laws of karma set up and predestine the circumstance we are now in, we have free will to decide how to react in each situation. But having free will doesn't make us "free" and independent. Free will means only that we can choose how to act under the influence of a specific set of circumstances; however, we cannot control the results of our actions that come upon us according to the higher law of karma. Human beings are not restricted to act in a specific manner. They have free will. But with this free will comes responsibility, because the way we act determines the reactions. Thus we are free to choose our future, both individually and collectively. Whatever we do creates a reaction that we must enjoy or suffer. We are constantly receiving the reactions of our previous actions that we created using our free will. Therefore we are responsible for our happiness and distress, and the material nature creates the conditions within which we enjoy or suffer. Collective karma is the aggregate of individual karma. If many people do the same thing or support or tolerate some act, then they are collectively responsible for the results and will get a collective reaction, which can be either good or bad according to the act done.
Although the law of karma is such that we are never a passive victim of predestination, we are also never free from the laws of creation, which are fixed according to the will of the creator. The Supreme Lord also has desires concerning how things shall go on in the material world. He is eager to see the living entities become happy and advance in spiritual knowledge. So sometimes He creates situations and causes things to happen that no one can avoid.
Therefore, the best thing is to live according to the will of the creator. This is the ultimate responsibility of the human being: to learn that there is a creator, and to learn how to use everything in harmony with the creator's will. Then we can become free from the entanglement of the seemingly endless network of actions and reactions. The science of getting freed from this material network is described in the Vedic literature and is called yoga.
Yoga: Connecting with the Supreme
A popular philosophy of life these days is, "Everything is relative. What is good for me is not necessarily good for you (and vice versa). Therefore nobody shall tell me what to do, because there are no absolute truths. Everything is relative." But this materially attractive philosophy is seriously flawed. "Everything is relative" is an absolute statement. How do you know that everything is relative? It is good that people have become suspicious of the term "absolute truth." Much cruelty has been and still is inflicted upon people in the name of the "Absolute." Yet what is designated as absolute has nothing to do with and is the very antithesis of Absolute Truth. It is absolutistic untruth.
The word "absolute" comes from the latin word absolutum (past participle of the verb absolvere, to "unbind"), meaning "unbound, unconditioned." Therefore the Absolute is not dependent on something relative. Everything relative is dependent on the Absolute. Absolute is all-inclusive, but absolutistic is all-exclusive. So religions or philosophies that claim to be the only ones are not absolute, but they are absolutistic because they exclude others. They cause division and hatred amongst men. Therefore a true understanding of the Absolute Truth is necessary. The Vedic revelations identify the Absolute Truth as God, the Supreme Person. Since the Absolute is all-inclusive, it must include both personal and impersonal features of God, because God is perfect and complete. God is not just an abstract, symbolic energy, but is both energy and person. God's personal aspect is supreme because from some impersonal origin, nothing personal would come. But since the entire universe is full of sentient beings, God is not only a sentient being, but also a unique, unlimited, absolute (i.e. all-inclusive) person. In Sanskrit this Supreme Personality of Godhead is called Krishna (literally: the all-attractive). As Vishnu, Krishna is the supreme creator of all the universes.
Since by definition, everything relative is connected with the Absolute, perfection means to realize this absolute relationship (and dependence), while imperfection, or illusion (maya), means to ignore this relationship and think oneself to be independent of the Absolute. Only in relationship with the Absolute does the relative have real sense and purpose. This relationship between the relative and the Absolute is described by maybe the most famous yet most misunderstood Sanskrit word: yoga. Yoga means "relationship, connection." We find this root in the English word "yoke," which graphically illustrates what yoga means -- to be yoked to and guided by the Absolute. A famous Latin word is synonymous to the Sanskrit word yoga. This word shares not only meaning but also destiny, because it is the most famous yet most misunderstood Latin word. The word is religio, "re-connection with God."
Originally religion and yoga were synonyms. Both refer to the relationship of the infinitesimal with the infinite, the living entities with God. This relationship is eternal, but due to a misuse of free will, the living entities within the material world have chosen to forget this relationship and replace it with something else. Thus everyone thinks that everything is more important than God. In the material world, everyone is egocentric. Our relationship with the Absolute, being eternal, already exists. We simply have to discover it. It can be discovered by dis-covering -- removing the coverings. These coverings are not outside factors; they are the egocentric limitations of our consciousness. The processes of yoga, or religio, are ways to discover our consciousness and expand its horizon until we see the original source of ourselves and everything -- the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Since there are different people, there are different processes of yoga. The yoga processes can be compared to a staircase with many steps. There are three categories of yoga: karma-yoga, jnana-yoga, and bhakti-yoga.
Karma-yoga is the yoga of action. The basic idea of karma-yoga is to be active. The basic idea of jnana-yoga, the yoga of knowledge, is to become passive. In perfection, both unite in bhakti-yoga, the yoga of love and devotion, giving up egocentric action and becoming active in service according to the desires of God.
The spectrum of karma is very broad. Leaving aside the gross materialists, who want to enjoy without consideration of piety or impiety, the path of karma stated in the Vedas directs the performer to engage in acts that will elevate him materially. On this level one desires to live in harmony with the universal forces (demigods), to live comfortably within this material world of temporary objects. To attain this goal, the karmi performs sacrifices to please the demigods and ultimately attain a position in the heavenly planets as their servant. Material happiness in the heavenly planets is far greater than any happiness one could imagine on this earth.
The more a karmi advances, the more he will understand that beyond the temporary universal forces is the supreme force, God, who alone can grant him eternal peace and happiness. On this level, karma becomes karma-yoga and leads to bhakti-yoga. In karma-yoga one works, creating fruits and offering them for the satisfaction of the Supreme. Krishna distinguishes between those who worship the demigods and those who worship Him: "Men of small intelligence worship the demigods, and their fruits are limited and temporary. Those who worship the demigods go to the planets of the demigods, but My devotees ultimately reach My supreme planet, which is beyond the duality of manifested and unmanifested nature." (Bhagavad-gita 7.23-24)
The spectrum of jnana is also very broad. The common understanding of all types of jnana is that this material world is made of transient, illusory forms. A jnani (one who performs jnana) wants to detach himself from this material world and attain liberation. The ways to detach oneself from matter are many. Some torture or even mutilate their bodies, some are absorbed in philosophical studies, and some practice physical yoga (astanga-yoga, the eightfold path of yoga) beginning with yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama. The hatha- and raja-yogas known to the modern world dimly reflect this physical form of yoga and cannot compare with the original astanga-yoga.
Yama and niyama refer to "do's and don'ts." One gives up meat-eating and ultimately all eating, and one gives up sexual activity and retires to the Himalayas. To survive the tough Himalayan environment, one activates internal energies (prana) through physical exercises (asanas) and breathing techniques (pranayama). When the yogi attains the perfection of meditation (samadhi, the eighth and highest level of astanga-yoga), he sees God, the Supersoul, within and develops the desire to please God directly. At this point, the yogi gives up the body and goes to a place where he can engage in a loving exchange with the Supreme Personality of Godhead. On this level, jnana- and astanga-yoga become bhakti-yoga: "A yogi is greater than the ascetic (tapasvi), greater than the empiricist (jnani), and greater than the fruitive worker (karmi). Therefore, O Arjuna, in all circumstances, be a yogi. And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me -- he is most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion." (Krishna in the Bhagavad-gita, 6.46-47)
Bhakti-yoga continues the paths of karma-yoga and jnana-yoga. Bhakti-yoga is not a material process, and it does not depend on material conditions like the other two forms of yoga. It can be attained from all levels. From each step it is possible to connect with God and engage in devotional service (bhakti-yoga). Bhakti-yoga is both practical and philosophical. It has nine main categories: "Hearing (sravanam) and chanting (kirtanm) about God (vishnoh) [especially chanting the holy names of God], remembering God, rendering service, worshiping God in the temple, offering prayers, becoming the servant of God's servants, taking full shelter of the Lord, and surrendering everything to Him -- these nine processes are accepted as pure devotional service (bhakti-yoga)." (Srimad-Bhagavatam 7.5.23)
Karma: The universal law of action and reaction
Cause and effect form the basic duality within this material world. Whatever happens has a cause and will cause other effects, both directly and indirectly. Chance doesn't exist. Everything is part of a higher cause-effect structure. Cause and effect refer to the principle of action and reaction. According to the Vedic teachings, this principle applies both on physical and nonphysical levels. The equation "Action = reaction" is the basis of Newtonian physics, which restricts this formula to mechanical processes. While Newton denied any possibility of cause-effect without a physical connection, modern quantum physics indicates the universal aspects of the cause-effect principle. Pioneers like David Bohm went so far as to propose the existence of a universal quantum potential field that coordinates a hierarchy of explicit orders and thus allows synchronization of non-local physical events. These are only abstract ideas, but they show that a closer examination of the complex system of actions and reactions, both on atomic and cosmic levels, will lead us to the conclusion that mere mechanic causality cannot explain everything. This is especially true regarding phenomena like consciousness, life, individuality, and destiny.
The Vedic version is that there is no such thing as chance. Everything happens by the arrangement of higher authorities, also known as "providence." Whatever happens has a cause and a higher purpose. However, the propounders of the materialistic world view strictly deny this. They say that cause and effect is valid within the entire universe, but only on the physical level. Life and consciousness, they say, are the products of atomic combinations under the strict laws of physics (based on causality). But they exclude life and consciousness from causality, saying that they were produced by chance and work by chance. This argument is inconsistent, one-sided, and biased. Still, it can't be denied that the Vedic idea that nothing happens by chance is difficult for Westerners to accept. If chance doesn't exist, do we mean to say that rapes, murders, car accidents, and concentration camps happen due to predestination, that they had to happen because the causes were set for this effect?
The Vedic view of karma can shed much light on these questions. Karma refutes both the materialistic and fatalistic world view. Karma extends cause and effect from the physical level to the nonphysical levels of consciousness and destiny. There are many misconceptions about karma. Some Christian critics argue that karma corresponds to the principle of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth," which is set up by men and denied by God. Propounders of liberalism say that all human beings have free will, that everybody has to decide for himself what is right or wrong, and that there are no absolute standards such as those suggested by karma. These misconceptions arise from misunderstanding. Let us examine what karma means.
Karma is the Sanskrit word for "action." Since the Sanskrit language is multifaceted, karma means much more than this simple translation. Derived from the root kri "to do, to plan, to execute," karma further means "that which is caused and causing," which suggests that no action is independent. Each action or event is part of a big network of causes and becomes a cause for future reactions or events. This network of karma (action) is coordinated according to the "law of karma" -- the law of action and reaction. Most misunderstandings are due to the confusion of karma and predestination. Karma is not predestination! The Vedic understanding of karma includes both predestination and free will. The wrong interpretation of karma can lead to amazing extremes. If you think karma is just predestination, then whatever comes can't be changed and whatever happens was sanctioned by karma. This would allow you to think, "I can exploit others for my purpose, kill them in camps, or enslave them. If I can do it, this means it was their karma, and I am not guilty, because if it wasn't their karma, I couldn't do it. But because I can, I am allowed to do it." There are many beings on Earth and beyond who think like that -- more than most humans imagine. There are two big mistakes in this logic. First, free will exists, and second, karma is not the supreme law in this creation. Sometimes philosophers consider free will to be the ultimate controlling factor of our destiny, but although this proposition is attractive, it is wrong. The Supreme Lord, Krishna, also has His plan for the creation and sometimes causes gross annihilation of the living beings who have become too sinful and disturbing for the Earth to bear.
To understand the implications of karma, we have to understand the sublime synthesis of predestination and free will. Both aspects exist simultaneously. To conceive of this inconceivable reality, we have to consider both sides of the law of karma: the point of view of action, and the point of view of reaction. Considering the point of view of reaction, we have to accept that whatever has happened to us was predestined, and it was sanctioned by the universal authority (God, or Vishnu, who as Supersoul is present both within the universe and within the heart of each living entity as the omnipresent witness and the universal memory). Whether we accept this point of view or not, the fact that something happened cannot be changed. We may call it chance or bad or good luck, but then we avoid the lesson that we should learn. To learn the lesson is important because each situation forces us to react.
This leads to the second aspect of karma, the point of view of action. Although the laws of karma set up and predestine the circumstance we are now in, we have free will to decide how to react in each situation. But having free will doesn't make us "free" and independent. Free will means only that we can choose how to act under the influence of a specific set of circumstances; however, we cannot control the results of our actions that come upon us according to the higher law of karma. Human beings are not restricted to act in a specific manner. They have free will. But with this free will comes responsibility, because the way we act determines the reactions. Thus we are free to choose our future, both individually and collectively. Whatever we do creates a reaction that we must enjoy or suffer. We are constantly receiving the reactions of our previous actions that we created using our free will. Therefore we are responsible for our happiness and distress, and the material nature creates the conditions within which we enjoy or suffer. Collective karma is the aggregate of individual karma. If many people do the same thing or support or tolerate some act, then they are collectively responsible for the results and will get a collective reaction, which can be either good or bad according to the act done.
Although the law of karma is such that we are never a passive victim of predestination, we are also never free from the laws of creation, which are fixed according to the will of the creator. The Supreme Lord also has desires concerning how things shall go on in the material world. He is eager to see the living entities become happy and advance in spiritual knowledge. So sometimes He creates situations and causes things to happen that no one can avoid.
Therefore, the best thing is to live according to the will of the creator. This is the ultimate responsibility of the human being: to learn that there is a creator, and to learn how to use everything in harmony with the creator's will. Then we can become free from the entanglement of the seemingly endless network of actions and reactions. The science of getting freed from this material network is described in the Vedic literature and is called yoga.
Yoga: Connecting with the Supreme
A popular philosophy of life these days is, "Everything is relative. What is good for me is not necessarily good for you (and vice versa). Therefore nobody shall tell me what to do, because there are no absolute truths. Everything is relative." But this materially attractive philosophy is seriously flawed. "Everything is relative" is an absolute statement. How do you know that everything is relative? It is good that people have become suspicious of the term "absolute truth." Much cruelty has been and still is inflicted upon people in the name of the "Absolute." Yet what is designated as absolute has nothing to do with and is the very antithesis of Absolute Truth. It is absolutistic untruth.
The word "absolute" comes from the latin word absolutum (past participle of the verb absolvere, to "unbind"), meaning "unbound, unconditioned." Therefore the Absolute is not dependent on something relative. Everything relative is dependent on the Absolute. Absolute is all-inclusive, but absolutistic is all-exclusive. So religions or philosophies that claim to be the only ones are not absolute, but they are absolutistic because they exclude others. They cause division and hatred amongst men. Therefore a true understanding of the Absolute Truth is necessary. The Vedic revelations identify the Absolute Truth as God, the Supreme Person. Since the Absolute is all-inclusive, it must include both personal and impersonal features of God, because God is perfect and complete. God is not just an abstract, symbolic energy, but is both energy and person. God's personal aspect is supreme because from some impersonal origin, nothing personal would come. But since the entire universe is full of sentient beings, God is not only a sentient being, but also a unique, unlimited, absolute (i.e. all-inclusive) person. In Sanskrit this Supreme Personality of Godhead is called Krishna (literally: the all-attractive). As Vishnu, Krishna is the supreme creator of all the universes.
Since by definition, everything relative is connected with the Absolute, perfection means to realize this absolute relationship (and dependence), while imperfection, or illusion (maya), means to ignore this relationship and think oneself to be independent of the Absolute. Only in relationship with the Absolute does the relative have real sense and purpose. This relationship between the relative and the Absolute is described by maybe the most famous yet most misunderstood Sanskrit word: yoga. Yoga means "relationship, connection." We find this root in the English word "yoke," which graphically illustrates what yoga means -- to be yoked to and guided by the Absolute. A famous Latin word is synonymous to the Sanskrit word yoga. This word shares not only meaning but also destiny, because it is the most famous yet most misunderstood Latin word. The word is religio, "re-connection with God."
Originally religion and yoga were synonyms. Both refer to the relationship of the infinitesimal with the infinite, the living entities with God. This relationship is eternal, but due to a misuse of free will, the living entities within the material world have chosen to forget this relationship and replace it with something else. Thus everyone thinks that everything is more important than God. In the material world, everyone is egocentric. Our relationship with the Absolute, being eternal, already exists. We simply have to discover it. It can be discovered by dis-covering -- removing the coverings. These coverings are not outside factors; they are the egocentric limitations of our consciousness. The processes of yoga, or religio, are ways to discover our consciousness and expand its horizon until we see the original source of ourselves and everything -- the Supreme Personality of Godhead.
Since there are different people, there are different processes of yoga. The yoga processes can be compared to a staircase with many steps. There are three categories of yoga: karma-yoga, jnana-yoga, and bhakti-yoga.
Karma-yoga is the yoga of action. The basic idea of karma-yoga is to be active. The basic idea of jnana-yoga, the yoga of knowledge, is to become passive. In perfection, both unite in bhakti-yoga, the yoga of love and devotion, giving up egocentric action and becoming active in service according to the desires of God.
The spectrum of karma is very broad. Leaving aside the gross materialists, who want to enjoy without consideration of piety or impiety, the path of karma stated in the Vedas directs the performer to engage in acts that will elevate him materially. On this level one desires to live in harmony with the universal forces (demigods), to live comfortably within this material world of temporary objects. To attain this goal, the karmi performs sacrifices to please the demigods and ultimately attain a position in the heavenly planets as their servant. Material happiness in the heavenly planets is far greater than any happiness one could imagine on this earth.
The more a karmi advances, the more he will understand that beyond the temporary universal forces is the supreme force, God, who alone can grant him eternal peace and happiness. On this level, karma becomes karma-yoga and leads to bhakti-yoga. In karma-yoga one works, creating fruits and offering them for the satisfaction of the Supreme. Krishna distinguishes between those who worship the demigods and those who worship Him: "Men of small intelligence worship the demigods, and their fruits are limited and temporary. Those who worship the demigods go to the planets of the demigods, but My devotees ultimately reach My supreme planet, which is beyond the duality of manifested and unmanifested nature." (Bhagavad-gita 7.23-24)
The spectrum of jnana is also very broad. The common understanding of all types of jnana is that this material world is made of transient, illusory forms. A jnani (one who performs jnana) wants to detach himself from this material world and attain liberation. The ways to detach oneself from matter are many. Some torture or even mutilate their bodies, some are absorbed in philosophical studies, and some practice physical yoga (astanga-yoga, the eightfold path of yoga) beginning with yama, niyama, asana, and pranayama. The hatha- and raja-yogas known to the modern world dimly reflect this physical form of yoga and cannot compare with the original astanga-yoga.
Yama and niyama refer to "do's and don'ts." One gives up meat-eating and ultimately all eating, and one gives up sexual activity and retires to the Himalayas. To survive the tough Himalayan environment, one activates internal energies (prana) through physical exercises (asanas) and breathing techniques (pranayama). When the yogi attains the perfection of meditation (samadhi, the eighth and highest level of astanga-yoga), he sees God, the Supersoul, within and develops the desire to please God directly. At this point, the yogi gives up the body and goes to a place where he can engage in a loving exchange with the Supreme Personality of Godhead. On this level, jnana- and astanga-yoga become bhakti-yoga: "A yogi is greater than the ascetic (tapasvi), greater than the empiricist (jnani), and greater than the fruitive worker (karmi). Therefore, O Arjuna, in all circumstances, be a yogi. And of all yogis, the one with great faith who always abides in Me, thinks of Me within himself, and renders transcendental loving service to Me -- he is most intimately united with Me in yoga and is the highest of all. That is My opinion." (Krishna in the Bhagavad-gita, 6.46-47)
Bhakti-yoga continues the paths of karma-yoga and jnana-yoga. Bhakti-yoga is not a material process, and it does not depend on material conditions like the other two forms of yoga. It can be attained from all levels. From each step it is possible to connect with God and engage in devotional service (bhakti-yoga). Bhakti-yoga is both practical and philosophical. It has nine main categories: "Hearing (sravanam) and chanting (kirtanm) about God (vishnoh) [especially chanting the holy names of God], remembering God, rendering service, worshiping God in the temple, offering prayers, becoming the servant of God's servants, taking full shelter of the Lord, and surrendering everything to Him -- these nine processes are accepted as pure devotional service (bhakti-yoga)." (Srimad-Bhagavatam 7.5.23)